Signals are used for a wide variety of purposes in Unix programming, and we've already used them in smaller contexts. For example, when we are working in the shell and wish to "kill all cat programs" we type the command:

#> killall cat

The killall command will send a signal to all processes named cat that says "terminate." The actually signal being sent is SIGTERM, whose purposes is to communicate a termination request to a given proces, but the process does not actually have to terminate … more on that later.

We've also used and looked at signals in the context of terminal signaling which is how programs stop, start and terminate. When we type Ctrl-c that is the same as sending a SIGINT signal, and when we type Ctrl-z that is the same as sending a SIGTSTP signal, and when we type fg or bg that is the same as sending a SIGCONT signal.

Each of these signals describe an action that the process should take in response. This action is outside the normal control flow of the program, the events arrive asynchronously requiring the process to interrupt its current operations to responde to the event. For above signals, the response is clear — SIGTERM terminate, SIGSTOP stop, SIGCONT continue — but for other signals, the programmer can choose the correct response, which may be to simply ignore the signal all together.

Notice that each signal has a name, value, and default action. The signal name should start to become a bit more familiar, the value of a signal is actually the same as the signal itself. In fact, the signal name is just a #defined value and we can see this by looking at the sys/signal.h header file:

#define SIGHUP  1       /* hangup */
#define SIGINT  2       /* interrupt */
#define SIGQUIT 3       /* quit */
#define SIGILL  4       /* illegal instruction (not reset when caught) */
#define SIGTRAP 5       /* trace trap (not reset when caught) */
#define SIGABRT 6       /* abort() */
#define SIGPOLL 7       /* pollable event ([XSR] generated, not supported) */
#define SIGFPE  8       /* floating point exception */
#define SIGKILL 9       /* kill (cannot be caught or ignored) */
//(...)

In code we use both the #defined value and the number. In general, it is easier to remeber the name of the signal, but some signals are often refered to by value, in particular, SIGKILL, whose value 9 is affectionately used in the phrase: "Kill 9 that process."

Also, each signal has a default action. There are four described in the table:

• Term : The process will terminate
• Core : The process will terminate and produce a core dump file that traces the process state at the time of termination.
• Ign : The process will ignore the signal
• Stop : The process will stop, like with a Ctrl-Z
• Cont : The process will continue from being stopped

As we can see later, for some signals, we can change the default actions. A few signals, which are control signals, cannot have their default action changed, these include SIGKILL and SIGABRT, which is why "kill 9" is the ultimate kill statement.

A good exercise to explore the variety of signals and how to use them is to actually use them from the command line. To start, we can open two terminals, in one, we execute the loop program:

int main(){ while(1); }

Which will just loop forever, and in other terminal, we will kill this process with various sginals to see how it responds. Let's start with a signal we all love to hate, the signal that indicates a Segmentation Fault occurs. You might not have realized this, but a Segmentation Fault is a signal generated from the O.S. that something bad has happened. Let's simulate that effect:

killall -SIGSEGV loop

And in the in the terminal where =loop is running, the result is eerily familiar.

#>./loop 
Segmentation fault: 11

The 11 following the message is the signal number: 11 is the signal number for SIGSGV. Note that the default response to a SIGSEGV is to terminate with a core dump.

We can explore some of the more esoteric signals and see similar results occur when the progra terminates:

| Signal     | Output                      |
|------------+-----------------------------|
| =SIGKILL=  | Killed: 9                   |
| =SIGQUIT=  | Quit: 3                     |
| =SIGILL=   | Illegal instruction: 4      |
| =SIGABRT=  | Abort trap: 6               |
| =SIGFPE=   | Floating point exception: 8 |
| =SIGPIPE=  | (no output)                 |
| =SIGALARM= | Alarm clock: 14             |
| =SIGUSR1=  | User defined signal 1: 30   |
| =SIGUSR2=  | User defined signal 2: 31   |
|------------+-----------------------------|

Let's retstart the loop program and use kill to simulate terminal signaling. We've been discussing how the terminal control will deliver signals to stop, continue, and terminate a process; there's no mystery here. Those signals are signals that you can send yourself with kill.

Let's look at starting the loop program again, but this time

killall -SIGSTOP loop

And again, the result in the other terminal is quite familiar:

#>./loop 

[1]+  Stopped                 ./loop

If we were to run jobs, we can see that loop is stopped in the background. This is the same as typing Ctrl-z in the terminal.

#> jobs
[1]+  Stopped                 ./loop  

Before, we'd continue the loop program with a call to bg or fg, but we can use kill to do that too. From the other terminal:

killall -SIGCONT loop

And, after we run jobs, the loop program is running in the background:

#> jobs
[1]+  Running                 ./loop &

Finally, let's terminate the loop program. The Ctrl-c from the terminal actually generates the SIGINT signal, which stands for "interrupt" because a Ctrl-c initiates an interrupt of the foreground process, which by default terminates the process.

killall -SIGINT loop

And the expected result:

#> jobs
[1]+  Interrupt: 2            ./loop &

The primary system call for signal handling is signal(), which given a signal and function, will execute the function whenever the signal is delivered. This function is called the signal handler because it handles the signal. The signal() function has a strange declaration:

int signal(int signum, void (*handler)(int))

That is, signal takes two arguments: the first argument is the signal number, such as SIGSTOP or SIGINT, and the second is a reference to a handler function whose first argument is an int and returns void. It's probably best to explore signal() through an example, and hello world program is where we always start.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>

#include <signal.h> /*for signal() and raise()*/

void hello(int signum){
  printf("Hello World!\n");
}

int main(){

  //execute hello() when receiving signal SIGUSR1  
  signal(SIGUSR1, hello);

  //send SIGUSR1 to the calling process  
  raise(SIGUSR1);
}

The above program first establishes a signal handler for the user signal SIGUSR1. The signal handling function hello() does as expected: prints "Hello World!" to stdout. The program then sends itself the SIGUSR1 signal, which is accomplished via raise(), and the result of executing the program is the beautiful phrase:

#> ./hello_signal
Hello World!

Some key points to take away from the hello program is that the second argument to signal() is a function pointer, a reference to a function to call. This tells the operating system that whenever this signal is sent to this process, run this function as the signal handler.

Also, the execution of the signal handler is asynchronous, which means the current state of the program will be paused while the signal handler executes, and then execution will resume from the pause point, much like context switching.

Let's look at another example hello world program:

void hello(int signum){
  printf("Hello World!\n");
}

int main(){

  //Handle SIGINT with hello
  signal(SIGINT, hello);

  //loop forever!
  while(1);

}

The above program will set a signal handler for SIGINT the signal that is generated when you type Ctrl-C. The question is, when we execute this program, what will happen when we type Ctrl-C?

To start, let's consider the execution of the program. It will register the signal handler and then will enter the infinite loop. When we hit Ctrl-C, we can all agree that the signal handler hello() should execute and "Hello World!" prints to the screen, but the program was in an infinite loop. In order to print "Hello World!" it must have been the case that it broke the loop to execute the signal handler, right? So it should exit the loop as well as the program. Let's see:

#> ./hello_loop
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^CHello World!
^\Quit: 3

As the output indicates, every time we issued Ctrl-C "Hello World!" prints, but the program returns to the infiinite loop. It is only after issue a SIGQUIT signal with Ctrl-\ did the program actually exit.

While the interoperation that the loop would exit is reasonable, it doesn't consider the primary reason for signal handling, that is, asynchronous event handling. That means the signal handler acts out of the standard flow of the control of the program; in fact, the whole program is saved within a context, and a new context is created just for the signal handler to execute in. If you think about it some more, you realize that this is pretty cool, and also a totally new way to view programming.

Signals are also a key means for inter-process communication. One process can send a signal to another indicating that an action should be taken. To send a signal to a particular process, we use the kill() system call. The function declaration is below.

int kill(pid_t pid, int signum);

Much like the command line version, kill() takes a process identifier and a signal, in this case the signal value as an int, but the value is #defined so you can use the name. Let's see it in use.

void hello(){
  printf("Hello World!\n");
}

int main(){

  pid_t cpid;
  pid_t ppid;

  //set handler for SIGUSR1 to hello()
  signal(SIGUSR1, hello);

  if ( (cpid = fork()) == 0){
    /*CHILD*/

    //get parent's pid
    ppid = getppid();

    //send SIGUSR1 signal to parrent
    kill(ppid, SIGUSR1);
    exit(0);

  }else{
    /*PARENT*/

    //just wait for child to terminate
    wait(NULL);
  }

}

In this program, first a signal handler is established for SIGUSR1, the hello() function. After the fork, the parent calls wait() and the child will communicate to the parent by "killing" it with the SIGUSR1 signal. The result is that the handler is invoked in the parent and "Hello World!" is printed to stdout from the parent.

While this is a small example, signals are integral to inter process communication. In previous lessons, we've discussed how to communicate data between process with pipe(), signals is the way process communicate state changes and other asynchronous events. Perhaps most relevant is state change in child processes. The SIGCHLD signal is the signal that gets delivered to the parent when a child terminates. So far, we've been handling this signal implicitly through wait(), but you can choose instead to handle SIGCHLD and take different actions when a child terminates. We'll look at that in more detail in a future lesson.

While we've so far looked at changing the actions for a set of signals using a handler. So far, our handlers have been doing things — mostly, printing "Hello World!" — but we might just want our handler to do nothing, essentially, ignoring the signal. That is easy enough to write in code, for example, here is a program that will ignore SIGINT by handling the signal and do nothing:

#include <signal.h>
#include <sys/signal.h>

void nothing(int signum){ /*DO NOTHING*/ }

int main(){

  signal(SIGINT, nothing);

  while(1);
}

And if we run this program, we see that, yes, it Ctrl-c is ineffective and we have to use Ctrl-\ to quit the program:

>./ignore_sigint
^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^\Quit: 3

But, it would seem like a pain to always have to write the silly little ignore function that does nothing, and so, when there is a need, there's a way. The signal.h header defines a set of actions that can be used in place of the handler:

• SIG_IGN : Ignore the signal
• SIG_DFL : Replace the current signal handler with the default handler

With these keywords, we can rewrite the program simply as:

int main(){

  // using SIG_IGN
  signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN);

  while(1);
}

Setting a signal handler is not a sigular event. You can always change the handler and you can also rever the handler back to default state. For example, consider the following program:

void handler_3(int signum){
  printf("Don't you dare shoot me one more time!\n");

  //Revert to default handler, will exit on next SIGINT
  signal(SIGINT, SIG_DFL);
}

void handler_2(int signum){
  printf("Hey, you shot me again!\n");

  //switch handler to handler_3
  signal(SIGINT, handler_3);
}

void handler_1(int signum){
  printf("You shot me!\n");

  //switch handler to handler_2
  signal(SIGINT, handler_2);
}


int main(){

  //Handle SIGINT with handler_1
  signal(SIGINT, handler_1);

  //loop forever!
  while(1);

}

The program first initiates handler_1() as the signal handler for SIGINT. After the first Ctrl-c, in the signal handler, the handler is changed to handler_2(), and after the second Ctrl-c, it is change again to handler_3() from handler_2(). Finally, in handler_3() the default signal handler is reestablished, which is to terminate on SIGINT, and that is what we see in the output:

#> ./you_shout_me
^CYou shot me!
^CHey, you shot me again!
^CDon't you dare shoot me one more time!
^C

The last note on signal handling is that not all signals are created equal, and some signals are more equal than others. That means, that you cannot handle all signals because it could potentially place the system in an unrecoverable state.

The two signals that can never be ignored or handled are: SIGKILL and SIGTSTOP. Let's look at an example:

int main(){

  //ignore SIGSTOP ?
  signal(SIGSTOP, SIG_IGN);
  
  //infinite loop
  while(1);

}

The above program tries to set the ignore signal handler for SIGSTOP, and then goes into an infinite loop. If we execute the program, we find that oure efforts were fruitless:

#>./ignore_stop
^Z
[1]+  Stopped                 ./ignore_stop

The program did stop. And we can see the same for a program that ignores SIGKILL.

int main(){

  //ignore SIGSTOP ?
  signal(SIGKILL, SIG_IGN);

  //infinite loop
  while(1);

}

#>./ignore_kill &
[1] 13129
#>kill -SIGKILL 13129
[1]+  Killed: 9               ./ignore_kill

The reasons for this are clearer when you consider that all programs must have a way to stop and terminate. These processes cannot be interfered with otherwise operating system would loose control of execution traces.

The signal() function returns a pointer to the previous signal handler, which means that here, again, is a system call that we cannot error check in the typical way, by checking if the return value is less than 0. This is because a pointer type is unsigned, there is no such thing as negative pointers.

Instead, a special value is used SIG_ERR which we can compare the return value of signal(). Here, again, is the program where we try and ignore SIGKILL, but this time with proper error checking:

int main(){

  //ignore SIGSTOP ?
  if( signal(SIGKILL, SIG_IGN) == SIG_ERR){
    perror("signal");;
    exit(1);
  }

  //infinite loop
  while(1);

}

And the output from the perror() is clear:

#>./signal_errorcheck
signal: Invalid argument

The invalid argument is SIGKILL which cannot be handled or ignored. It can only KILL!